Urban Morphology of Delhi: Master Plans

Introduction

The national capital territory of Delhi is the most important economic & cultural hub of the Indian sub-continent and is known for its centralised distance from the major geographical features of the Indian subcontinent namely the Himalayan Ranges & Aravalli range.

The city has always been a favourable case from the geographical & political point of view and has been an all-time favourite among all the ruling dynasties starting as early from the Mahabharata period all the way till Britisher chooses Delhi as their capital city. Delhi has been a major urban economic centre with ever-increasing urban growth and sprawl while sharing borders with the states of Haryana, Rajasthan & Uttar Pradesh.

Geography of Delhi

Delhi is bound by the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains in the North and East, by the Thar Desert in the West and by the Aravalli hill ranges in the South. Delhi has a flat terrain with a low NNE-SSW existing Ridge area which remains as an extension to the Aravalli hill ranges entering Delhi from the southwest direction all the way from the state of Rajasthan. The ridge area is predominantly visible on the south side of the city extending up to the Okhla area & disappearing below the Yamuna floodplains which belong to the Northeast side of the city. (NIDM) In view of the major geographical features identified in the city, it has been further divided into 3 segments which include the ridge, the floodplains & the plains.

The Ridge of Delhi

Ecologically it’s beneficial as it acts as a physical barrier between the extremities of the Thar desert and the plains of Delhi by restricting the inflow of dust and wind from the desert side. The ridge area is easily identified with the presence of the historical Tughlaqabad fort, standing at the highest point in the ridge area of Delhi. It has a dominant presence in the landscape of Delhi city, encircling the city on the northwest and west. The ridge covers a 35km stretch from the southern parts of the city all the way to the western parts occupied by the Yamuna River and offers a uniformly distributed drainage pattern due to its topography across the city.

It also contains a number of perennial tanks & pits which act as groundwater collection & recharging points throughout its stretch while helping in the sustenance of green areas bearing natural forests which in turn affect the surrounding air temperatures and act as breathing lung areas to the city. The Delhi ridge is characterized bio tropical thorny secondary forest commonly known as rakes or an arid, open scrub forest. The ground thorn is seasonal and the thorny shrubs occur in widely spaced clumps supporting a number of twines and climbers. The ridge & the vegetation are critical for the following functions:

• Assimilation Of Gaseous Pollutants
• Ground Water Recharge
• Prevention Of Erosion & Siltation
• Maintenance Of Biodiversity (CSE)

The Yamuna Flood Plain of Delhi

The river Yamuna is located where the city falls towards its west side and is considered the major source of drinking water and other sacred rituals in the city. Apart from the Yamuna as a major source of water, Delhi has 3 canal systems working within its peripheries namely the Agra canal, Hindan canal & western Yamuna canal serving as secondary water bodies. The Yamuna River is the primary water source that flows into the city from Wazirabad to Okhla barrage while covering a length of 22kms and forming a floodplain area of around 97square kilometres which forms part of 7% of the total area of Delhi. These floodplains are also known by the name of Khadar. (NIDM)

Apart from river & canal water sources, the city relies heavily on groundwater sources whose availability is governed by the hydrogeological conditions of Delhi characterised by the alluvial formations and quartzitic hard rocks. As per the geological formations, 90% of the Delhi area has fresh water availability at 60 m depth with drinkable quality whereas only 10 % of the area under the ridge section has saline and brackish waters. (Govt.)

The Plain of Delhi

The areas other than Yamuna flood plains and the ridge area falls under the fertile plains also known as Bangar which consists of major areas of Delhi city including old Delhi, New Delhi & Delhi cantonment. (Online) The figure shows the alluvial formations which overlay the ridge bedrock. The plains of Yamuna have a distinct river deposit making it extremely fertile whereas the alluvial plains bear different characteristics on either side of the ridge on its eastern & western sides having variations in yielding prospects. The nearly closed Chattarpur alluvial basin covering an area of about 48 Km ² is occupied by alluvium derived from the adjacent quartzite ridge. (CSE)

Geomorphology of Delhi

Delhi has a distinct geo-morphological setting, with natural features of varied characteristics, where Delhi ridge and the river Yamuna are the most significant landscape features which connect Delhi to the surrounding regional landscape. Further Delhi area has been classified into seven landforms as follows:

• Mehrauli Fathepur Beri Plateau
• Masudpur Wazirabad Ridge
• Najafgarh Older Alluvial Plain (Dabar)
• Delhi Older Alluvial Plain(Bangar)
• Sandy Upland Plain
• Yamuna Older Flood Plain
• Yamuna Active Flood Plain

Each of these units has different geological characteristics which have been attained through a long span of geological time. Out of these seven units, Delhi’s older alluvial plain was recognised as the most suitable site for the development of the city on account of its advantageous geomorphic settings. This north-south range forms a triangular plain with the river Yamuna in the east Badarpur-Mehrauli range of the Aravalli as the base. It is this triangle, as shown in figure 3 that has been the cradle of so many ruling dynasties in the Indian subcontinent.

Further, Delhi lies in the Indo-Gangetic Geosyncline, converted into a flat plain by rigorous sedimentation. The floor of the Gangetic trough (without all the sediments) shows corrugated inequalities and buried ridges (shelf faults). This leads to severe seismic threat of liquefaction especially along the river Yamuna areas making them extremely vulnerable to damage even in case of moderate earthquakes as the presence of alluvial soils amplifies earthquakes. Whereas the belt running from central Delhi towards the West and South-West areas of Delhi faces a moderate to high threat across the belt as shown in Figure. However, the Ridge stays comparatively safer owing to the characteristics of its rocky base. (NIDM)

Historical Profile of Geographical Development in Delhi

Historic Delhi evolved through centuries presenting a mosaic of distinct capitals & villages with a topographical /geographical context. The character of planning was primarily of introverted nature to compete with the hostile climate & the political insecurity. The capital has elaborated water harvesting systems, tanks, walled landscaped areas, orchards, water gardens, agricultural surroundings, etc. which defined its historic fabric. The setting of the development was based on ecological parameters and thus the interventions made were optimum & sustainable. (Jain, 2009)

The cities of Delhi in chronological order moved from south to north because the cooler breezes blew from mountains and each king as he started his city wished to avoid the buildings of his predecessors which might obstruct these breezes.

As a consequence, we find that the successive extensions of the Qutub site followed by Firoz shah’s & Humayun’s cities found north of this and Shahjahanabad exists beyond them. Towards the east of the river were the vast farmlands with an ensured supply of water from the river and the flow of poorvai (eastern) winds in proximity to the settlements. (Dhawale, 2010)

Development of Urban Landscape

Delhi’s regional landscape shows an interrelationship between natural ecology & cultural ecology. From the legendary city of Indraprastha to the 20th century Lutyen’s Delhi, several cities of Delhi came up which were all located within this natural triangle. It starts from the legendary city of Indraprastha around 5000 BC followed by the city formed by King Hasti known as Hastinapur.

In 736 AD the Tomar Dynasty Founded the city called Lal Kot near the Qutub Minar area. This city was conquered by the Chauhan king in 1180 and was renamed as Qila Rai Pithora. Further to this Qutub-ud-din Ayebak established Delhi Sultanate in 1206. Followed by the settlements of the Mughal city of Shahjahanabad in 1639 and lastly, Lutyen’s Delhi came into existence. (Parichay)

Development of Hydrological Landscape

Based on the hydrological characteristics different settlements in Delhi have their dependence on ground & surface water resources for their sustenance. Starting with the old city of Qila Rai Pithora as the case for the first urban settlement of Delhi was supported by the overflow of water from the Surajkund water body.

This period utilised groundwater sources via systems based on rainwater harvesting systems, including a majority of step wells & dug well structures built in the city landscape. Examples of groundwater retaining structures created during this period are Gandhakki Baoli, Razia Sultan’s Baoli, Hazratnizammuddin Baoli, etc.

During this period the water utilisation & consumption pattern of the city changed the lifestyle &Landuse with surface water getting used extensively. But this period witnessed many failures in the region of Tuglakabadcity which had a ridge formation. Owing to the presence of the prominent geographical feature of rocks, the dug wells being shallow led to the deprivation of water & later the city got abandoned.

As a lesson learnt from the previous dynasties relying on groundwater sources, the Mughal period from 1526 to 1857, shifted the emphasis to surface water sources. This made their settlement patterns governed by the existing source of surface water which is the Yamuna river. The Yamuna water & its overflow was utilised by them. There were seven wells in Red fort in the old Delhi area. These shallow wells were used as the main source of water for the entire settlement area.

This was followed by the settlements during British Period from 1857 to 1947 which thrived on the creation of a Freshwater zone along the valley of Delhi ridge. During this period the settlements established are known as Lutyen’s Delhi or New Delhi which survived on the combination of groundwater sources plus surface water bodies which were active at that time. It was planned over the Delhi ridge which is considered the safest area having a rocky base as compared to other areas in Delhi facing the problem of soil liquefaction in event of an earthquake.

The Britisher’s settlement was planned in contrast to the introverted planning of earlier cities of Delhi. This was open-ended in nature and was the starting point for future city expansions. It was based on the garden city concept with a ridge forming its backdrop & the Yamuna River was linked to the recreational node of the city comprising vast open spaces of central vista, stadium & India gate. The plan provided preservation of the natural beauty of the ridge as the last traces of Aravalli hills & incorporated the river as the major element of design.

Planning of Lutyen’s Delhi

Britishers Transferred their capital from Calcutta to Delhi as a stamp of autocratic rule. The primary reason was Delhi’s geographical position at the centre of northern India (Equidistant from Bombay and Calcutta) and its historic importance (important seat of the Mughal Empire; for Hindus- Mahabharata-era city of Indraprastha). It is named after the British architect Edwin Lutyen’s (1869– 1944), who was responsible for its architectural design, under the British Empire in the 1920s & 1930s. This city became to be known as New Delhi in comparison to the old existing Mughal City in Delhi known as Shahjahanabad.

The new city was planned in strict accordance with the geographical feasibility that the terrain of Delhi has to offer. It was located at the (then available) highest point on the Delhi ridge known as Raisina Hill for physical domination in comparison to the previous settlements of Delhi. This was a deliberate planning attempt to utilise the existing natural boundaries offered by the ridge on the west and by river Yamuna offering limitations of extension towards the eastern periphery. The site included the slope area and the plain area that lies between the ridge & Yamuna flood plains offering slopes and contour for a well-drained condition.

The area between the ridge & the old city of Qutub Minar was designated for future expansion in view of providing due importance to the historic past of Delhi. While the eastern & southern margins contained other historic monuments. A broad crescent from Shahjahanabad and Kotla Firoz Shah, south to Tughlaqabad and the Qutub with tombs of Safdarjung and Lodi’s as well as Jantar Mantar in the foreground provides a view of the site.

The city was essentially planned with sightlines, view axis, avenues & lush landscapes using geometric symmetry through triangles & hexagons. In order to connect with natural & historic remnants of the city three visual corridors were planned for visually connecting the new settlement complex with Jama Masjid, Indraprastha & Safdarjung Tombs respectively, as shown in Figure.

This settlement essentially comprised three sections as shown in Figure.

• The government complex is situated at the top of the Raisina hills with radiating axis known as Rajpath, Janpath & Sansad Marg as the major connecting corridors.
• The Commercial District popularly called Connaught palace was a centre for commerce & trading, based on a radial planning pattern.
• The Residential district is referred to as a bungalow zone showcasing social stratification having dedicated areas of residence for Brown sahibs & upper-grade White sahibs.

Post-Independence Development in Delhi

Contrary to the planning practices followed during the pre-independence period in Delhi, the city was now entering a new modern age of development & urban sprawl. In the post-independence era during 1951, the city of Delhi was declared a Part-C state having its own Council of Ministers and a Legislature. In 1953 the States Reorganization Commission suggested the formation of the Municipal Corporation of Delhi such that the national capital remains under the direct effective control of the national government itself.

Later in 1957, the Municipal Corporation of Delhi Act was enacted by Parliament and the Municipal Corporation was finally formed in 1958 with elected members. Later under the Delhi Development Act, of 1957 the Delhi Development Authority was created leading to the creation & publication of Delhi’s first-ever Master Plan in 1962 catering to the duration from 1961 to 1981.

Delhi Master Plan 1962

The first Master Plan for Delhi also happens to be the first of its kind comprehensive plan for any city in India. A salient feature of the master plan was a system of landscaped linkages connecting various parts of the city, neighbourhoods & important monuments. A characteristic learned from the Britisher’s model of city planning. It proposed to develop mini-city forests within the urban area & conservation of the ridge in its natural form, the master plan also proposed an inviolable green belt around the urban limits having a width of about 1.6 to 2km. allowing extractive industries in the southern part of the Aravalli range which later had shown severe consequences with no rehabilitation efforts or restoration after quarrying & mining activities affecting the environmental equilibrium at the Vasant Kunj area, sultan ghari’s tomb, bhati mines, etc.(MPD2021, 2013)

Delhi Master Plan 2001

The master plan for Delhi 2001 provided the needed emphasis on a sustainable natural ecosystem. Envisioning the entire Delhi as an urban area except for the ridge, Yamuna & proposed green belt zones. It supported the trend of outward expansion which necessitated long-distance movement to reach out for urban amenities, leading to the dedicated construction of new settlements located away from the central core of the city.

For example, the walled old city of Delhi has given away its peripheries to accommodate post-independence development, where the urban remains include residential and commercial areas reflecting irregular growth patterns with a high density of built-up area showing uncontrolled growth in a mixed land use fashion. (Technology)

Delhi Master Plan 2021

It proposed new areas for urban extension while introducing public-private partnership (PPP Model) for the development of Urban Extensions. It prioritised the Role of private participants including developers and land owners. It envisages Infrastructure development, Disposal of built-up area and Development of farmhouses in the designated green belt. The new urban zones are proposed as Zone-J, Zone K-I, Zone-L, Zone- N & Zone P-II (Credence)

Table: Comparison	of Master Plans	For Delhi (DDA)
Master Plan 1962	Master Plan 2001	Master Plan 2012
Initiation of modern planning which aimed towards the integrated development of the city. Envisage development of Urbanisable area of 448 square kilometres by 1981	Prepared with a perspective of 20 years (upto1981) and was aimed to cater increasing population & changing requirements of the city. This envisaged expanding the Urbanisable area of Delhi to 688 square kilometres	Extensive modifications with a futuristic perspective to 2021 with increasing population density and the addition of 5 new cities along with existing urban areas, about 978 square kilometre of the total area
Urban population of 4.6millions.	Accommodate 12.2 million urban populations by the year 2001	It projected population growth of 23million by the year 2021

Urban Extension in Delhi

As per the current scenario New Delhi today is an amalgamation of historically traditional &contemporary urban space, including organic settlements of Shahjahanabad, the Bungalow Zone of Lutyen’s Delhi and the Post-Independence growth with respect to Delhi’s Master Plan. The urban morphology of Delhi depicts an irregular grid pattern around the centre and grid patterns around it, whereas the functional zoning includes recreational zones, political areas and a residential zone close to the Central Business District. (cities & urban Geography)

The urban extensions of Delhi can be easily categorised under rural & urban growth patterns.

Urban Growth in Delhi

Delhi has 9 urban zones (as shown in Figure 10) including Zone A for housing the old city. Zone B includes Karol Bagh & city extensions. Zone C is known as civil lines. Zone D comprises Lutyen’s Delhi. Zone E is Trans Yamuna area. Zone F is popularly referred to as the New Delhi area. Zone G is mainly an industrial area carrying the Najafgarh drain. Zone H is characterised by well-planned residential localities. Zone M mainly covers the Rohini sub-city. Zone O has ecological significance due to the presence of the Yamuna River. (MPD2021, 2013)

Rural Growth in Delhi

Delhi has 6 rural zones (as shown in Figure 11) starting from Zone J located in south Delhi. Zone N contains the proposed urban extensions. Zone K includes the Dwarka sub-city. Zone P is known for Narela urban extension project. Zone L is dedicated to smart city development to upgrade infrastructure. (MPD2021, 2013)

The city has evolved over the ages going through several phases of growth. Owing to its ever-increasing pressure of urban growth has led to its current form demarcating the present-day metropolitan area of Delhi while exhibiting vast expansion on built-up space within and even beyond its boundaries. The expansion within the premises of Delhi city is demarcated by the proposed development of million-plus sub-cities suggested by Master plan 2021 including cities like Rohini & Dwarka. While the outside boundary expansions are referred to the adjoining cities of Faridabad, Gurgaon, Ghaziabad and Noida as the second set of development under the segment of million-plus cities. (Richa Sharma, September 2013)